Thymosin Alpha-1 and Autoimmune Disease Research: T-Cell Tolerance, Regulatory Immunity and InflammationThymosin Alpha-1 (Tα1) — a 28-amino acid thymic peptide processed from prothymosin alpha — has a well-documented role in immune reconstitution and anti-infective immunity (covered in our Thymosin Alpha-1 immune reconstitution article). A parallel and mechanistically distinct body of research examines Tα1's role…
MOTS-C and Insulin Resistance Research: Mitochondrial Peptide, Glucose Metabolism and Type 2 Diabetes BiologyMOTS-C (Mitochondrial Open Reading Frame of the 12S rRNA-c) is a 16-amino acid peptide encoded within the mitochondrial genome — a discovery that challenged the long-held assumption that mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encodes only structural components of the respiratory chain. As a…
Semax and Depression Research: Monoamine Modulation, BDNF and Mood BiologySemax — the synthetic heptapeptide Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro derived from the ACTH(4-7) sequence with a Pro-Gly-Pro C-terminal extension — is registered in Russia and Ukraine as a prescription neuroprotective agent. While its primary clinical applications involve ischaemic stroke research applications and cognitive enhancement, a substantial body of…
Kisspeptin-10 and Puberty Timing Research: HPG Axis Development, GnRH Pulse Onset and Precocious Puberty BiologyKisspeptin's discovery as the gatekeeping signal for hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis activation at puberty onset represented a paradigm shift in reproductive neuroendocrinology. The KISS1 gene product — processed into kisspeptin-54, -14, -13, and -10 depending on proteolytic cleavage context — acts…
Epitalon and Pineal Gland Research: Melatonin Restoration, Circadian Rhythm and Ageing BiologyEpitalon (Epithalon, Epitalamin synthetic tetrapeptide Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) was developed by Vladimir Khavinson and colleagues at the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology, originally derived from the natural polypeptide extract epithalamin produced from bovine pineal tissue. The pineal gland's central role in circadian biology,…
PT-141 and Female Sexual Dysfunction Research: Melanocortin Pathways, Desire and Central Arousal MechanismsPT-141 (Bremelanotide), the melanocortin receptor agonist derived from Melanotan II, has a well-characterised research profile in male sexual dysfunction — particularly its role in erectogenic mechanisms through central MC4R-mediated dopaminergic activation. The parallel research programme in female sexual dysfunction (FSD) is substantial,…
BPC-157 and Bone Healing Research: Fracture Repair, Osteoblast Biology and Connective Tissue MechanismsBPC-157 (Body Protection Compound 157) has an established preclinical profile in soft tissue repair — gastrointestinal mucosal healing, tendon and ligament repair, and muscle regeneration are among its most extensively studied biological activities. A less prominently discussed but mechanistically important research area…
Follistatin and Muscle Wasting Disease Research: Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Myostatin Inhibition BiologyFollistatin's role as an endogenous antagonist of myostatin — and of the broader TGF-β/activin signalling axis — positions it at the centre of research into muscle wasting conditions. Cachexia, the severe muscle and fat wasting syndrome associated with cancer, chronic heart failure, COPD,…
TB-500 and Cardiac Repair Research: Thymosin Beta-4, Cardiomyocyte Regeneration and Heart Failure BiologyAmong the many tissue repair functions attributed to Thymosin Beta-4 (TB-500), cardiac regeneration stands out as a particularly compelling research area — not merely because of the magnitude of unmet clinical need in heart failure, but because TB-500’s cardiac biology challenges fundamental…
LL-37 and Cancer Immunology: Antimicrobial Peptide Research, Tumour Biology and Immune ModulationLL-37 is the sole member of the cathelicidin family expressed in humans, and among the most thoroughly studied host defence peptides in biomedical science. While its antimicrobial properties — direct membrane disruption of bacteria, fungi, and enveloped viruses — have been known for…
Peptide Cycling and Research Protocol Design: How Scientists Structure Peptide StudiesStructuring a peptide research protocol is not simply a matter of choosing a compound and a dose. Rigorous preclinical and translational research requires decisions about administration timing, cyclical exposure, washout periods, outcome measurement, and the biological rationale underpinning each design choice. This guide examines…
Selank and Anxiety Neuroscience: GABA Modulation, Stress Biology and Anxiolytic Mechanisms (UK 2026)
Selank and Anxiety Neuroscience: GABA Modulation, Stress Biology and Anxiolytic Mechanisms (UK 2026)Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide — Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro — derived from the endogenous immunomodulatory peptide Tuftsin, with an added Pro-Gly-Pro sequence for enhanced stability. Developed at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, it has been registered as an…
